Contents
ABOUT
THE FIELD
What is judiciary interpretation?
Where do judiciary interpreters work?
What kinds of cases do judiciary interpreters work in?
What is the difference between interpretation and translation?
What are the techniques of interpreting? How is it done?
What does a legal translator do?
Is judiciary interpreting difficult?
Is legal translating difficult?
What is the pay scale for judiciary interpreters?
What is the pay scale for judiciary translators?
Is judiciary interpreting and translating an interesting
field?
Are other kinds of work available in this field?
KNOWLEDGE,
SKILLS AND ABILITIES
What skills should a judiciary interpreter have or develop?
How does one study to become a judiciary interpreter?
What are the job requirements?
Are there age requirements?
Are there academic requirements?
Are there degree programs available?
Are there training programs?
How long does it take to become a competent interpreter?
CERTIFICATIONS AND CODES OF ETHICS
Do the professional associations have a certification process
for judiciary interpreters and translators?
Do you have to pass an exam to work in court?
How do I find out if my state has a certification exam?
What are the requirements to interpret in federal court?
What are the benefits of certification?
Is there a code of ethics that judiciary interpreters and
translators must follow?
Are interpreters subject to background checks and security clearances?
MARKET CONDITIONS
Which languages are most in demand?
What are the prospects of finding work?
Does this field have growth potential?
Is there more work in specific states?
Is the job market different for interpreters and translators?
LEGAL
ASPECTS
Is there a constitutional right to an interpreter?
Do states have statutes that require interpreters for court
proceedings?
Is there a federal statute that governs the appointment
of interpreters?
What is the relevant case law regarding interpretation?
What happens if an interpreter makes a mistake?
What happens if an interpreter doesn't know how to interpret
a word or phrase?
Are cases ever appealed because of an interpreter issue?
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Disclaimer
The information and opinions expressed herein are those of the National Association
of Judiciary Interpreters and Translators and are believed to be true and accurate
to the best of our knowledge. However, in any case where NAJIT's Code of Ethics
or position may conflict with the law, the law prevails. It is up to each practitioner
to become well acquainted with federal and state court statutes, rules, or interim
regulations related to any judicial or extra-judicial setting in which s/he
serves.
________________________________________
What is judiciary interpretation?
There are different branches of interpretation: (1) legal, (2) conference, (3)
medical/mental health, (4) escort, (5) seminar, and (6) business, to mention
the most common. Aspiring interpreters may familiarize themselves with the various
branches of interpretation and/or translation by visiting the websites related
to the corresponding associations. To view a list and links to related interpreter
and translator associations, see "Links to Related Websites and Resources"
at www.najit.org.
Legal interpretation is divided into two main categories, judicial (commonly
known as court interpreting) and quasi-judicial (interpreting that takes place
in other legal settings). In the most general terms, judiciary interpreters
work both in courtrooms and in out-of-court settings, in any matter related
to law or a legal case.
Judiciary interpreters are highly skilled professionals who fulfill an essential
role in the administration of justice by providing complete, unbiased, and accurate
interpretation between English speakers and non-English or limited-English-proficient
defendants, litigants, victims, or witnesses. They are impartial officers of
the court, with a duty to serve the judicial process. The judiciary interpreter's
role is to help remove, to the extent possible, the linguistic barriers that
impede a non-English or limited-English-proficient individual from full and
equal access to justice under the law.
Where
do judiciary interpreters work?
Assignments may take place in juvenile, municipal, state, or federal court,
or in out-of-court settings such as attorneys' offices, jails, law enforcement
facilities, or other locations.
In some states, such as California, certified court interpreters are also qualified
to interpret in medical settings, by virtue of their certification, qualification,
training, and experience.
What kinds of cases do judiciary interpreters work in?
Judiciary interpreters cover virtually every kind of case (civil and criminal)
in municipal, state, and federal courts. State court interpreters cover matters
including personal injury, small claims, landlord/tenant disputes, traffic violations,
domestic violence, child support, sexual assault, rape, homicides, drug offenses,
arson, and illegal gambling, to name a few. Federal cases may include drug or
arms trafficking, human smuggling, money laundering, kidnapping, hijacking,
terrorist attacks, interstate or international crimes.
Legal proceedings may include initial appearances, bail applications, pretrial
conferences, pleas, evidentiary hearings, trials, sentencings, or post-sentencing
hearings.
Judiciary interpreters also work outside of the courtroom in other legal or
quasi-legal settings such as attorney-client interviews, prosecutor and victim
or witness interviews, proffer sessions with prosecutors, Grand Jury proceedings,
or law enforcement interviews and interrogations. In addition, they may interpret
for court support personnel or other justice services (e.g., probation officers,
medical personnel conducting psychiatric evaluations, law enforcement personnel
conducting polygraph examinations); probation and parole interviews; administrative
hearings; depositions; immigration hearings; and worker's compensation hearings.
What is the difference between interpretation and
translation?
Interpretation is the process by which oral communication is rendered
from one language to another. The original is either spoken or signed language,
and the rendition is delivered either in another spoken language or in a signed
language.
Translation is the process by which written text is rendered from one language into another. The original is in written form, and the translation into the other language is also produced in written form.
In both interpretation and translation, the goal is for the tone, style, and content of the original to be maintained in the rendition into the other language.
Sight translation is a hybrid form in which the content of a written text in one language is rendered orally (on sight) into another language.
NOTE: Interpretation and translation, while both language-related, are not identical disciplines. Each requires specific knowledge, training, and practice. Credentialing is different for each domain. Some practitioners are equally adept at both; others specialize in one discipline or the other. Although the public and media often use the terms interchangeably, we use interpretation when referring to the language transfer of oral speech, and translation when referring to the language transfer of written texts.
For a more detailed discussion
on the difference between interpretation and translation, see: www.najit.org
. Click on "Publications" and scroll down to "Translators and
Interpreters: Cut from the Same Cloth?"
What are the techniques of interpreting? How is
it done?
In legal settings, only three modes of interpretation are permitted by federal
or state statute, court rule, or case law. These modes are: simultaneous interpretation,
consecutive interpretation, and sight translation. All three modes require skills
beyond near-native proficiency in both languages.
The main technique in judiciary interpretation is that the interpreter uses
the same grammatical voice as each speaker, without ever lapsing into the third
person. This is called direct speech, and permits people to communicate with
each other directly. The interpreter's task is to interpret everything from
one language into the other language, while preserving the tone and register
of the original discourse. In any legal or quasi-legal setting, an interpreter
is not permitted to add, omit, or delete any content. Nor is an interpreter
permitted to give a summary (also known as "occasional" interpretation)
of a speech or text.
For more information regarding summary interpretation and the use of direct
speech, see NAJIT position papers at www.najit.org.
Click on Publications and then Position Papers to read "Direct Speech in
Legal Settings" and "Summary Interpreting in Legal Settings."
Some judges and attorneys have a mistaken belief that an interpreter renders
court proceedings word for word, but this is impossible since there is not a
one-to-one correspondence between words or concepts in different languages.
For example, sometimes one word in English requires more than one word in another
language to get the same idea across, and vice versa. Rather than word for word,
then, interpreters render meaning by reproducing the full content of the ideas
being expressed. Interpreters do not interpret words; they interpret concepts.
What does a legal translator do?
A legal translator prepares written translations of documents related to criminal
and/or civil matters, such as medical or psychological evaluations; forensic
reports (drug analyses, DNA reports or medical reports); divorce decrees; foreign
judgments; extradition documents; statutes and contracts, or other relevant
documents. The translation may be from the foreign language into English or
from English into the foreign language.
Tape transcription and translation of audio or video recordings are also needed
for legal and quasi-legal proceedings. Transcription is an area of legal interpretation
that requires additional training and expertise.
Is judiciary interpreting difficult?
Yes, because the practitioner is multi-tasking in two languages, listening and
speaking at the same time, striving to maintain a high level of accuracy at
challenging rates of speech. Additionally, the interpreter must maintain confidentiality
and uphold ethical standards. It can be difficult mentally, emotionally, and
ethically. Interpreting in court is widely considered to be the most challenging
and demanding of all legal settings.
Is legal translating difficult?
Yes, because it requires a rigorous standard of exactitude. Translated documents
may be introduced into evidence or used for other legal purposes. A true and
accurate translation must be produced at all times. When working with foreign
language documents from different legal systems, a translator must find accurate
equivalents in English for legal terms, at the same time taking care not to
mislead the reader to assume that the underlying legal concepts are identical
in the two legal systems, when in fact they may not be.
What is the pay scale for judiciary interpreters?
The answer to this question depends in part on the law of supply and demand.
Other variables include the type of certification and/or other qualifications
held by the interpreter; the frequency and volume of work available; the venues
in which interpretation is needed; and the employment scheme under which the
interpreter works (self-employment, freelance, or salaried). Remuneration varies,
depending on the specific state and the associated cost of living particular
to each area. In some parts of the United States, the pay is only moderate;
in others, it is more on a par with professional standards.
Most court interpreters are self-employed, and as such are considered independent
contractors. In some venues, freelance interpreters are paid by the hour; in
others they are paid by the half-day or full day. Some states have what are
called "permanent per diems."
Freelance interpreters and translators in certain states with high volume cases
can earn over $100,000 per year, but generally that involves working very long
hours. (To view a state court salaried and independent contractor compensation
survey conducted by the National Center for State Court Certification Consortium,
go to "State and Federal Court Certification Programs" at www.najit.org.)
The freelance rate in federal courts for certified or professionally qualified
interpreters, as of January 2008, is $376 per day, $204 per half-day (up to
4 hours), and $53 per hour or part thereof for overtime. The federal court rate
for non-certified or language-skilled interpreters is $181 per day, $100 per
half-day, and $31 per hour overtime.
When interpreters are hired by private parties, the rate of remuneration is
negotiable.
Where the volume of work is greatest, courts have full-time staff positions,
almost all of them for Spanish<>English interpreters. Starting annual
salaries in state or federal courts for staff interpreters may range from $30,000
to $80,000. Supervisory positions may also be available.
In some jurisdictions, such as California, New Jersey, and Cook County, Illinois,
for example, court interpreters in certain categories, both full-time and part-time,
are considered judiciary employees, and as such, have collective bargaining
rights.
What
is the pay scale for judiciary translators?
Translation rates vary, depending on the language, translator's qualifications,
the content of the document, the time frame, whether the particular court has
an established translation rate or whether the translation is for a private
sector entity. Translation may be compensated at a per-word, hourly, per-page
or daily rate. Rates vary by language and geographical location.
Is judiciary interpreting and translating an interesting
field?
Yes, although interest is in the eye of the beholder. The work is fascinating,
sometimes dramatic, always challenging, mentally stimulating, and can even be
perceived of as fun. After a few years of experience, certain types of jobs
can appear formulaic and predictable, but generally one never knows what one's
next assignment will bring, and that keeps interpreters and translators on their
toes. Sometimes the work is exhausting and stressful. Sometimes interpreters
struggle to hear under less-than-optimal conditions. Translators can work long
hours on rush assignments.
However, if you ask around, you will undoubtedly find that most judiciary interpreters
and translators will say that despite the challenges and frustrations, they
thoroughly enjoy their work.
Are other kinds of work available in this field?
Some judiciary interpreters work as consultants, trainers, analysts, or expert
witnesses on issues related to translation and interpretation.
Other areas of work in the field include designing interpreter protocols and
procedures; designing, administering, and scoring interpreter examinations;
developing training materials or programs for interpreters; managing quality
control in interpreting; teaching and orienting interpreters; or managing and
supervising legal interpretation and translation services in the private or
public sector.
________________________________________
What skills should a judiciary interpreter or translator
have or develop?
Judiciary interpreters and translators prepare themselves through college or
continuing education courses, court-sponsored training, self-training materials,
mentorship opportunities, and professional workshops or conferences. Aspiring
interpreters may contact their state supreme court or the administrative office
of the courts in their areas for information regarding training programs. Local
interpreter and translator associations should be contacted as well. NAJIT's
annual conference provides a forum for training and information exchange among
interpreters and translators. The conference locale varies from year to year.
How does one study to become a judiciary interpreter?
Full bilingual proficiency, ample vocabulary, and knowledge of standard grammar
are prerequisites. Judiciary interpreter training normally focuses on ethics,
specialized vocabulary, development of consecutive and simultaneous interpretation
skills, and sight translation practice.
Periodically there are short-term seminars and workshops around the country
offered by state court interpreter programs, by local interpreter and translators
associations, or by national associations. You may want to contact your state
supreme court interpreter program to see if your state has training seminars
scheduled and to request that they include you on their list for notification
of any future training seminars.
An excellent way to keep abreast of course offerings and many other judiciary
interpreting and translating related matters is to join NAJIT. Membership entitles
you to receive NAJIT's quarterly newsletter, Proteus, and periodic Cybernews
alerts; to attend the annual conference at a member's discounted rate; and to
join the NAJIT listserve, where members discuss training opportunities, dictionary
and resource information, terminology, and ethical issues.
One indispensable self-training technique is to go to court and observe proceedings.
Mentally interpret to yourself. Write down the terms that you are not familiar
with, and then look for solutions in dictionaries. You can also practice interpreting
while watching television or listening to the radio. In general, a good practice
is to tape your practice interpretations, and then to listen to the replay with
a critical ear for clarity, vocabulary, word choice, and coherence.
There are also various self-training print and recorded materials available,
developed by experienced interpreter trainers.
Some interpreters join informal practice groups with other interpreters.
Mentoring programs provide novices with opportunities to interact with experienced
practitioners.
What are the job requirements?
In addition to near-native fluency in English and another language, as well
as specialized skill in the required modes of interpretation, a judiciary interpreter
and/or translator must be knowledgeable about the structure of the court system
and the terms of art related to criminal and civil justice settings. A judiciary
interpreter must also have wide general knowledge (equivalent to at least two
years of college-level education); and an extensive vocabulary ranging from
formal discourse to colloquialisms and slang. Competence also requires a cooperative
and flexible attitude. An interpreter deals with people from many walks of life
and must remain professional, unbiased, and neutral towards all. Lastly, a judiciary
interpreter must have a good understanding of the protocol applicable to each
distinct venue and be familiar with the interpreters' code of ethics and the
laws that govern it.
An interpreter must possess good short-term memory skills; must be able to multi-task
while engaged in note-taking; and must process and reproduce meaning quickly
and accurately into another language. These skills are acquired over considerable
time and constantly polished to improve speed, accuracy and delivery.
A translator must possess excellent writing, research and analytic skills.
Are there age requirements?
No. Interpreters and translators may be of any age so long as they have the
required skill set and can function effectively in the given venue.
Are there academic requirements?
While an academic background is a plus, academic credentials do not necessarily
qualify one as an interpreter or translator for court purposes. Most examinations
for interpreters or translators are open to any candidate with a high school
diploma.
Are
there degree programs available?
A few colleges and universities in the U.S. offer minors or certificates in
legal interpretation, general interpretation or translation. Some colleges have
a bachelor of arts program. One college has a master's program in legal interpreting.
(See "Links to Related Websites and Resources" at www.najit.org
for a list of universities and training resources.)
Are there training programs?
See NAJIT's "Links to Related Websites and Resources" at www.najit.org
for training, education, research information; and a list of international,
national, and local interpreters' and translators' associations.
Also see: http://courts.michigan.gov/scao/services/access/References.pdf
and http://www.rmconner.com/resource/t&i.htm
for additional links to information on self-training materials.
How
long does it take to become a competent interpreter?
The answer will vary depending on the person's background, experience, aptitude
and training, but general competence is acquired over time. Most students of
interpreting need a year or two to acquire minimum interpreting skills after
they have mastered their source and target languages.
________________________________________
Do
the professional associations have a certification process for judiciary interpreters
and translators?
Yes. NAJIT has developed a judiciary interpreter and translator certification
examination in Spanish. NAJIT's exam tests interpretation skills and also legal
translation skills. [ Go to www.najit.org
and click on "NAJIT Interpreter and Translator Certification" for
additional information.] As of June 2008, the following states have recognized
NAJIT certification: Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Iowa, Massachusetts,
New York, Pennsylvania, Texas and Wisconsin.
The Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf offers a generalist certification
for sign language interpreters as well as a specialist certification in legal
interpreting, Go to www.rid.org for additional
information.
The American Translators Association offers a generalist translation certification
in various languages. Go to www.atanet.org for additional information.
Do
you have to pass an exam to work in court?
Most courts require that the interpreter candidate pass some form of a credentialing
examination. A judiciary interpreter's competence may need to be validated through
an official examination administered by a court, a professional association,
or another entity. States differ in their testing and registration requirements,
and tests for certification in some languages are available only in limited
geographical areas. Most examinations contain written and oral components. Some
contain an ethics component and some state court interpreter certification tests
include a translation component. Most Consortium State courts require that an
interpreter attend an ethical orientation as part of the admission process.
How
do I find out if my state has a certification exam?
The National Center for State Courts offers state certification through the
Consortium for State Court Interpreter Certification. As of 2008, 40 states
are members. Tests are available in over 18 languages. [Go to www.ncsconline.org,
scroll down to the lower right, "NCSC Projects," and follow the link
"Court Interpretation" for additional information.]
Find out your state's requirements by contacting the administrative office of
your state court system. You may research your state's court system on line
to find the contact person in charge of the interpreting program.
What
are the requirements to interpret in federal court?
Federal court certification is granted by the Administrative Office of the U.S.
Courts through its federal court interpreter examination, which was first administered
in 1980.
As of 2008, federal certification is available only for interpreters of Spanish,
Navajo, and Haitian Creole. The examination for Spanish interpreters is the
only one administered regularly (alternate years for the written and oral exams).
Go to www.uscourts.gov and click on "U.S.
District Courts" and then on "Federal Court Interpreters" for
additional information.
What
are the benefits of certification?
Certification means an interpreter or translator has been tested by a clearly
defined method and has demonstrated a minimum threshold of competence. That
threshold may be established by a professional association, a governmental organization,
or a court system, and the standard or criteria may be different for each. Most
courts and the legal community prefer to use interpreters or translators who
have been certified. The more certifications a practitioner holds, the wider
the potential job market.
Is
there a code of ethics that judiciary interpreters and translators must follow?
NAJIT has a Code of Ethics and Professional Responsibilities which is binding
on all its members.
The Administrative Office of the United States District Court has developed standards for performance and professional responsibility for contract court interpreters in the federal courts. [See: www.uscourts.gov/interpretprog/Standards_for_Performance.pdf]
Most consortium member state courts have also developed codes of ethics for judiciary interpreters and translators, which may vary in format, but are based on the National Center for State Courts' Model Code and cover the same ethical principles.
[For a compendium of links to state interpreter codes, see: www.CourtEthics.org and click on "Interpreter Codes" in the left hand column.]
Are interpreters subject to background checks and security clearances?
Yes. Each court system may
conduct a criminal record check on the interpreters it employs part or full
time.
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Which
languages are most in demand?
In recent years, both the media and the U.S. census have reported a steady increase
of non-English and limited-English-proficient individuals throughout the country.
In the United States, Spanish constitutes the largest language minority, but
courts and other justice-based organizations encounter dozens of other languages.
Frequency of need for interpreters in a specific language in any given geographical
area will fluctuate, depending on the size of the population that speaks that
language. Language needs vary from state to state, within a state, and from
jurisdiction to jurisdiction. For specific information about the languages in
demand in your area, contact your local state and federal courts.
In New York City, for example, interpreters of dozens of different languages
are needed daily. Generally, state courts have the most diverse need for interpreters.
The justice systems of many populous states use interpreters of more than 100
different languages each year. In contrast, busy federal courts may use interpreters
of some 30 different languages in any given year.
Unfortunately, not all justice-based organizations or support services collect
and report interpreter usage statistics, making it difficult to quantify the
number of interpreters and languages required in different venues throughout
the country.
What
are the prospects of finding work?
Prospects will vary, depending on your geographic location, the language you
interpret or translate, the need for interpreters or translators of that language,
your availability, your credentials, your level of experience and your entrepreneurial
abilities. Your first step would be to contact the courts in your area-municipal,
state and federal-and inquire as to their needs. Some courts already have an
interpreting department; contact those supervisors and seek their guidance.
Other potential sources of employment are state justice agencies, public defender
organizations, or the private sector.
Does
this field have growth potential?
The field of legal interpretation and translation is growing, often in areas
that once had limited need. The language services market is generally expanding.
Additionally, to bridge gaps in local resources, telephonic service providers
use contract interpreters in a variety of national and international locations
to interpret over the telephone.
Is
there more work in specific states?
Different states have different needs. California is the state that uses the
greatest number of interpreters. Traditionally there was greater demand for
interpretation and translation services in urban areas, but this is changing
as demographics are affected by immigration patterns.
Is
the job market different for interpreters and translators?
Yes. Some interpreters do not do translation work and some translators confine
themselves to written work exclusively. Marketability is increased if you can
work in both disciplines, though the work in each area is unpredictable, with
ebbs and flows.
Interpreting and translating
can also be practiced on a part-time basis, alternating with other income-producing
activities.
________________________________________
Is
there a constitutional right to an interpreter?
Although the United States Constitution does not explicitly provide for the
right to an interpreter, the individual rights and liberties afforded to all
individuals under the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments
are meaningless for non- or limited-English speakers unless they are provided
with complete, competent, and accurate interpreting services.
Do
states have statutes that require interpreters for court proceedings?
Yes. Many states have statutes or court rules that provide for the appointment
of interpreters in court proceedings. An internet search will lead you to the
relevant statutes.
Is
there a federal statute that governs the appointment of interpreters?
Nationally, the Court Interpreters Act was enacted in 1978. Title 28 USC §1827
is the federal law that establishes appointment and qualification procedures
for interpreters in judicial proceedings instituted by the United States.
What
is the relevant case law regarding interpretation?
United States ex rel Negrón (1970) is among the most important cases
related to judiciary interpretation. In Negrón, a Spanish-speaking defendant's
New York state murder conviction was overturned on constitutional grounds. Negrón
had been provided only periodic summaries during breaks, rather than a complete,
ongoing interpretation of his trial proceedings. His limited comprehension of
the proceedings was found to be a violation of his due process rights.
________________________________________
What happens if an interpreter makes a mistake?
Poor interpretation may cause injustices; that is why standards, training, and
certification are so vitally important. However, interpreters are human, and
humans are fallible, so mistakes do occasionally occur. When an interpreter
becomes aware of an error in interpretation, the interpreter is ethically required
to correct the mistake immediately. In court, the interpreter should address
the judge, acknowledge the error, and request that the record reflect the correction.
Outside of court, an interpreter should address the legal authority in the specific
setting in which the interpreter is working. For example, if an interpreter
has been contracted by an attorney to interpret in an attorney-client interview
or witness interview, the interpreter should address the attorney to acknowledge
an error. If an interpreter has been contracted by law enforcement, the interpreter
should address the interviewing or interrogating officer. If an interpreter
was contracted by a social services agency, the interpreter should address the
social worker, and so forth.
Complex and sensitive issues of protocol are involved when correcting a mistake
for the record. For example, the interpreter might need to request permission
to approach the bench during a jury trial. Interpreters should become familiar
with procedures and protocols for resolving specific problems or managing specific
situations.
Ideally, interpreters should work in teams of two for trials and longer proceedings.
This helps avoid interpreter fatigue, and provides mutual assistance when omissions
or other errors occur. Federal statute as well as some state court statutes
or court rules contain provisions on the use of team interpreting. NAJIT strongly
recommends this standard. [At www.najit.org,
click on "Publications" and then "Position Papers" to view
NAJIT's position paper, "Team Interpreting in the Courtroom."]
What
happens if an interpreter doesn't know how to interpret a word or phrase?
The answer depends on where this occurs. Knowledge of ethics and technique come
into play when an interpreter is confronted with an unknown word or expression.
If a witness says something that the interpreter does not understand, the interpreter
must seek clarification of the problem word or expression, after requesting
permission from the judge to inquire of the witness.
In situations outside the courtroom, the interpreter must request permission
from the attorney or other judicial or law enforcement officer to seek further
clarification from the speaker.
While simultaneously interpreting court proceedings, an interpreter may have
to interrupt the speakers in order to request a repetition or clarification.
There are several other ways of making corrections or compensating for gaps,
depending on the situation. In general, an interpreter uses finely tuned analytic
and cognitive skills to derive meaning from context. Electronic or other dictionary
resources may quickly be consulted, or colleagues may be consulted, or further
clarification may be requested of the original speaker.
An interpreter should not hesitate to request clarification immediately if a
witness uses an unfamiliar expression.
Are
cases ever appealed because of an interpretation issue?
Yes. However, some cases are unreported because before the trial phase, they
were either dismissed or reduced to a lesser charge due to the use of an untrained
interpreter or the lack of an interpreter.
For a thorough discussion of interpretation-related issues on appeal, see Interpreter
Issues on Appeal by Dr. Virginia Benmaman (Proteus, Fall 2000). [Go to www.najit.org,
click on "Publications" and scroll down to Proteus.]
There are additional miscellaneous case summaries at the same location, such as "The Alonso Case; The Rationale for State Court Certification in Florida," by Maria Cecilia Marty (Winter 2007); " Interpreters As Officers of the Court: Scope and Limitations of Practice" (Summer 2005); and "Interpreters and Their Impact on the Criminal Justice System: The Alejandro Ramirez Case," by Isabel Framer (Winter-Spring 2000). Also see: Interpreter-related articles in the news, a link from NAJIT's home page.
Last updated June 19, 2008.